Confucianism
CONFUCIANISM
Confucianism (in Chinese ru-jia) is the ethics and philosophy originally based on the teachings of the ancient Chinese sage and philosopher Confucius. It is a complex system of moral, social, political, and seemingly religious beliefs primarily relying on secular ethics. Confucianism aims to develop civilized individuals who in turn are expected to usher in a civilized society and eventually peace in world. It has enormously influenced cuture and history of East Asian countries leading to the erroneous belief that it is a state-sponsored religion, though propagation of Confucian values by governments is not altogether absent. Countries with a strong tradition of Confucianism include China, Japan, Taiwan, Vietnam, Korea, Singapore and places with settlements of Han Chinese. The kernel of his teachings is that someone who is fundamentally good is generally inclined towards goodness. So, that should be the ideal for every man, to be attained by leading a virtuous life, by possessing a very noble character, and by doing what he is meant to do unselfishly with sincerity and truthfulness. Sages and saints reach the peak of goodness through these sure-fire methods, says Confucius. According to him, a princely type of man is recognised by his high regard for virtue and shining character; the mean one by his grasping nature. The first has dignity, breadth and humility; the second pride, arrogance and crookedness. In a step by step process he termed as Great Learning, Confucius set forth the order by which self-development is made, and how it flows over to serve the state and benefit mankind. These are:
Investigation of phenomena;
Learning;
Sincerity;
Rectitude of purpose;
Self-development;
Family-discipline;
Local self-government; and
Universal self-government.
According to Confucius, the king is virtuous, just, honest and dutiful in a good government. Like the North Star, which by remaining steady in its place gives the other stars a point of reference, so should be the king to guide his subjects. The society, he says, is composed of five kinds of relationships: between man and wife, parent and child or elder and youngster, king/ruler and subject, and friend and friend. A well-governed state is that in which all the people carry on their relationships properly.
SCRIPTURES
Confucian thoughts are mainly available in four scriptures alongwith some more:
:
1) The Confucian Analects in twenty sections are the source books. Written by his students or people closely associated with Confucius, this series contain anecdotes, sayings, teachings and conversations of the sage with his followers.
2) The Philosophy of Mencius - Some confusion is there regarding this work (or two works, according to some). Lun Yu and Meng Tzu are stated to have written here the questions posed by the students and the answers thereto. There are also sections on economics, political theory and psychology. Yet another part contains suggestions to feudal rulers. The other opinion is that first measures to introduce a Confucian thought were taken by two famous early stalwarts, Mencius and Xun Zi during the philosophically fertile period of the Hundred Schools of Thought, who turned Confucianism into an ethical and political doctrine. They had to fight contemporary opposing ideas and to convince the then emperors by reasoned arguments.Mencius elaborated on Confucian ideas of human nature, of the requirements of good government, of morality, and created an idealist doctrine based on the supposition that human nature is essentially good. Xun Zi was against most of the points of view of Mencius. His assumption was that humans were by inclination bad, and required to be educated by observing various rites in order to bring out the goodness in them. Xun Zi's followers went still further and suggested very harsh punishments to keep the deviant tendencies in humans under control, a system known as li (borrowing from a Confucian principle) and the school of thought proposing it as legalist. This development helped Ouin Shi Huang of the decade or so old Quin dynasty (~ 220 BCE) to unify China by holding people under terror, all the time looking over their shoulders. Ironically, unification of the country and peaceful conditions envisaged by Confucius were achieved by following measures diametrically opposite to what he recommended.
3) Ta Hsueh, also known as Grat Learning, is a compendium of ethics and politics.
4) Chung Yung or The Doctrine of the Mean was written by Kung Chi, a grandson of Confucius. It is a work of philosophy delineating the nature and principles of balanced behaviour and appropriate conduct.
DIFFICULTIES
It seems not much evidence is there to link Confucius (the person) to Confucianism. During his lifeime, his ideas did not gain any currency, and he often regretted the fact that all the feudal lords found him unemployable. Like his contemporaries (or nearly so) Socrates, Jesus and Buddha, there is no direct way of knowing what the ideas were. In its place there are reminiscences of his students, their students and people close to the master. As such, what passes off as his teachings is not always reliable. Compounding the situation further, there was a widespread repression of dissidents and their thoughts during the reign of the Quins (~220 BCE) known as the period of "Burning of the Books and Burying of the Scholars", about 200 years after the death of Confucius. His writings perhaps would have been lost forever, had there not been a chance discovery of a cache of his works hidden in the walls of a scholar's house. Based on these and other fragmentary sources, his ideas could be framed revealing a widely-read person intimately aware of the problems of his times. He called on almost all the kings of China feuding for supremacy, and tried to bring about a change in their ways with his political and philosophical ideas. The Zhou dynasty kind of disintegrating when Confucius was young (~530 BCE) persuaded him strongly of the importance of his mission to unify China. (This date is open to question because some scholars place it in third century BCE.) Anyway, holding up the famous late Duke of Zhou as a role model, he stated in section 6 of the XVIIIth Analects that, - "If right principles prevailed through the empire, there would be no need for me to change its state". He wanted to acquire sufficient political power so as to establish a new dynasty on the lines of the late Zhous, to "make a Zhou dynasty in the East" (Analects XV, 5), and for the purpose even went to the extent of accepting an invitation from a rebel. He remained the axiomatic "king without a crown", could not even become a prime minister somewhere, and in fact was expelled from a number of states for a number of times. Along with his supporters and students, he travelled around (when he was jeered at and even thrown into jail) and returned to his native place during the later part of his life to teach.
His short replies to questions asked by students form the Analects and are considered to be the primary source of Confucian teachings. A somewhat disjointed collection of anecdotes, conversations and questions and answers, the Analects lack coherence. There is no deductive reasoning, inductive logic or evidence in the texts as is found in, say, western philosophical works. In its place, Confucius heavily relied on rhetorical forms like analogy, generally true statements or aphorisms and tautological observations or self-evident truths, putting them in highly contextualised terms. As a result, what he says often appears fuzzy and difficult to understand. Another major discrepancy is that different sources place the texts in varying chronological order, spell them not always uniformly and compound the matter further by differng interpretations. Nevertheless, Confucius says that there is in his teachings "a unity all pervading" (Analects XV, 3) and "one single thread binding my way together." (Analects IV, 15).
After suppression during the short-lived Quin dynasty (~ 220 BCE) Confucianism revived in the following Han dynasty. The neo-Confucianism developed during this period (~2nd century BCE) combined Taoist and Buddhist thoughts and created a new philosophical system,.which became a kind of state religion. In this instance there are some controversies as well, because Taoism and Buddhism beliefs were totally opposed to some traditions of Confucianism. (For example, reincarnation in Buddhist thought.) Apparently, emperor Wu of the Han dynasty made Confucian texts the basis of the examination system for entry into government service as mandarins or an official of the nine top grades of the Chinese imperial service. Confucianism as a state philosophy continued thereafter in China upto early twentieth century of current era. It was also regarded as state philosophy in Japan and Korea.
Life of Confucius
Summarising his life, Confucius said (The Analects II, 4):
At 15 I set my heart on learning; at 30 I firmly took my stand; at 40 I had no delusions; at 50 I knew the Mandate of Heaven; at 60 my ear was attuned; at 70 I followed my heart's desire without overstepping the boundaries of right.
K'ung-tze or K'ung-fu-tze was his actual name in Chinese, which visiting Jesuit priests in the Chinese court in the 17th century latinized to Confucius. Actually, part of the credit of bringing Confucianism to the stream of global philosophical thought belongs to such Catholic missionaries. Also, there is the seven volume monumental work of Professor Legge under the title The Chinese Classics. From legends and fragmentary evidences, it would appear that Confucius was born in a noble but not too well-off family ca 551 BCE in the province of Lu (modern Shan-tung). His father was a distinguished warrior who died while Confucius was quite young. To support himself and his mother, Confucius worked as a hired help in a noble household but continued to maintain his habit of extensive reading. At the age of 22 he opened a school to teach the traditional six disciplines (history, poetry, government, ethics, divination and music) which was attended by many students. His fame as a scholar grew more, culminating in his appointment as a minister in the state of Lu. The measures taken and policies adopted by him were very effective improving conditions all round. Then the court intrigues started, the duke of Lu began to ignore his advice and a disgusted Confucius left government service. This account is disputed by some other scholars who maintain that the state job Confucius ever got was that of a junior teacher after the death of his mother, when he got married, fathered a child and then divorced his wife. He was never a minster because all the rulers were of the view that his awkward truthfulness and embarrassing honesty would be no good in a position of responsibility.
Be that as it may, all the sources agree that he settled into a life of teaching after his travels and died in his 74th year in 478 BCE (which was two years after the death of Buddha). He did not lose heart for his failure to reform society, and died with courage saying, "There is not one in the empire that will make me his master!" Respected during his lifetime as also the period following, he was eclipsed for a while by the Quin kings. From the Han period (2nd century BCE) onwards, he was revered for his knowledge and wisdom, and there were shrines and idols of him in his memory. (The idols were replaced by woodblocks in which his messages were engraved in the 15 th century of the current era.) Though he was regarded as a sage without flaws, he never took his scholarship seriously. In "Analects", VII, 18, he is described as one "who in the eager pursuit of knowledge, forgot his food, and in the joy of attaining to it forgot his sorrow". He maintained a sombre yet cheerful mien, was fond of reciting poetry and loved to play the lute and sing. He was quite humourous as would be apparent from his comment on noisy music: "Why use an ox-knife to kill a fowl?" Confucius believed in an omniscient heaven and was of the view that the punishments and rewards of life were consequences of present actions.
The essence of Confucianism is social propriety or Li, which according to the master is the greatest principle of living. If a society lives following the tenets of Li, it is devoid of unrest and strife. Confucius believed that such conditions were possible only in idealized feudal structures. In such states everyone ideally carries out the duties expected of them; Father shows kindness to son, who reciprocates with filial piety. The eldest sibling shows understanding and love to juniors so as to get respect and humility in return. A measure of righteousness is the key element in the relationship between husband and wife while obedience is all that is required of her. Elders require to be humane so as to earn the respect of younger people; the rulers benevolent to get the loyalty of ministers and subjects. Li is also stated to mean the middle way, the idea of maintaining a sense of proportion in all matters.That his principles did not always produce the desired effect is apparent from the broken marriage of Confucius. Probably, his measure of righteousness appeared to be too onerous to his wife forcing her subsequently to opt for a divorce.
Confucius said that if someone wishes to control or govern others, he has to control himself first. This can be regarded as paraphrasing of the biblical injunction, do unto others what you do unto yourself (Confucius, of course, had no way of knowing it.). It is also his contention that the beneficial influence of a virtuous king spreads throughout the kingdom making everyone happy. He elaborated on this idea in the book Great Learning and combined it with the Taoist concept wu wei, meaning that the less the king does (is seen), the more that is done (he is effective). Remaining calm, cool and collected at the centre, the king helps everything to function properly, avoiding interference in matters small. The concept is similar to the earlier Chinese shamanistic belief wang-sa in which king is the axis with earth and sky at the two ends and people in the middle. Another interpretation is that it is a ploy of ministers and counselors to curb autocratic tendencies of the king harming the people. In Chinese calligraphy the character depicts a line uniting these three levels of the universe. Confucias never said that he was telling something new; he maintained that he was only repeating what was said before long ago. In reality, however, he introduced many new ideas. For instance, Voltaire and H. G. Creel greatly admired his (at that time) revolutionary idea of replacing the nobility of blood with one of virtue. Before Confucius framed his ideas, Juniz used to mean "noble man"; after his writings came to be known, it gradually assumed a new connotation just as "gentleman" did in English over a period of time. A virtuous commoner nurturing his qualities thus could be called a "gentleman" but a no-good son of a king remains a "small man" for all purposes. Accepting students from all sections of society, Confucian showed that he was no supporter of the feudal structures in Chinese society.
Another new idea of Confucius is meritocracy, the emphasis on merit as a criterion, which led
to the introduction of the Imperial examination system in China. It made possible for everyone to become a high government official after qualifying in an examination, thus bringing wealth and honour to his .family. The modern civil service is China's very important practical contrbution to the world. It would appear that the Chinese examination system was started in ca 165 BCE, when certain candidates for public office were called to the Chinese capital for examination of their moral excellence by the emperor. This process was made a custom over time, and any one wishing to enter government service had to pass a written examination. There was a great demand for officials capable of reading and writng administrative documents during the early Han period. Principles of the ru jia school established by Confucius about 300 years before that time were of great help leading to a revival of interest in his teachings, more so to counter the divisive tendencies of the land-owning aristocrats. Furthermore, his adoration of past kings who left their kingdoms to those apparently most qualified rather than to their elder sons emphasised the advantages of a merit-based selection method. The emperors found it convenient to rule China with Confucian principles along with some elements of Buddhism and Taoism. Like other savants, Confucius would probably have objected to much that was passed off as his teachings in subsequent periods. An example of this was the excessive importance given to rituals by his later-day followers.
Ritualism
In Analects II, 3, Confucius said:
Lead the people with administrative injunctions and put them in their place with penal law, and they will avoid punishments but will be without a sense of shame. Lead them with excellence and put them in their place through roles and ritual practices, and in addition to developing a sense of shame, they will order themselves harmoniously.
It would be seen from the above the unique features of Chinese social value systems. The emphasis there is that one should not be ashamed of his conduct and should always avoid the loss of face shameful behaviour brings in its wake. During the period of the Warring States, there was a sort of anarchy, which the Quin kings suppressed by enacting harsh laws. Li meaning social propriety came to be known as legalism while the ritualism of Confucius was called fa. His proposition was that under threat of punishments people keep to the straight and the narrow little realising why was it necessary for them to do so. Introducing ethics there, Confucius argued that with ritual, patterns of behaviour are internalised and exert their influence before actions are taken, so people behave properly because they fear shame and want to avoid losing face. The idea behind the rituals or the so-called "Rite" is somewhat difficult to comprehend. In the Chinese pictographic script, the character representing it is a vase full of flowers on an alter symbolizing a sacrifice to the gods. The Confucian interpretation of it includes politeness and propriety along with understanding. Thus rituals are used to distinguish between people, while their usage allow people to know at all times who is the younger and who the elder, who is the guest and who the host and so forth. Rituals also define the duties of people and the outcome of doing the tasks properly. Assimilation of the sense of ritual is the main process. Thus formal behaviour becomes a sort of second nature, desires are channelled properly and cultivation of personal qualties takes the form of social correctness. Though this idea is against the common saying that "the cowl does not make the monk", Confucianism maintains that with sincerity it is possible to make good behaviour an ingrained part of an individual's character. So, Confucius says:
"Respectfulness, without the Rites, becomes laborious bustle; carefulness, without the Rites, becomes timidity; boldness, without the Rites, becomes insubordination; straightforwardness, without the Rites, becomes rudeness" (Analects VIII, 2).
Ritual is therefore a way to find the balance between opposing qualities that might otherwise lead to conflict. It helps in categorising people and builds hierarchical relationships through protocols and ceremonies. In this manner, everyone is assigned a place in society and an appropriate form of behaviour.
Confucius was very much attached to music and regarded it as an exception to rituals for its quality of unifying the hearts, transcending all boundaries. Confucius, however, not always followed the rite (as repeatedly stated in the Analects). It seems he behaved differently often, like when he cried at his preferred disciple's death, or when he met a fiendish princess (VI, 28).
Subsequently, however, dogmatic ritualists forgetting that ritual is "more than presents of jade and silk" (XVII, 12) departed from what Confucius intended.
Ritual earlier meant "sacrifice" in a religious ceremony. Confucius extended the term to include secular ceremonial behaviour alongwith propriety or politeness which is a part of everyday life. Rituals were considered as an all-embracing system of norms and were codified by Confucius so as to revive the etiquette of earlier dynasties Upon his death, however, he himself came to be regarded as a great authority on ritualistic behaviour. One of the central themes of Confucianism is relationships, and the differing duties arising from the different status one held in relation to others. Thus individuals stand at the same time in different degrees of relationships with different people. For example, they are juniors in relation to their parents and elders, and seniors in relation to their children, younger siblings, students, and others. The juniors are required in Confucianism to be reverent towards to their seniors and to serve them, while seniors are expected to be benevolent towards juniors and to be concerned about their welfare. This is found in many aspects of East Asian culture even to this day, with children carrying out their filial obligations towards parents and elders, and parents and elders equally mindful of their responsibilities towards their juniors.
Scriptural Notes
Confucianism as it is understood now includes not only the teachings of Confucius, but also customs and rituals adopted and authorised by him and some additions thereafter. In fact, among the Confucian texts there are several that even in his day were considered as sacred vestiges of the past. There are two classes of texts named as "King" (Classics), and "Shuh" (Books). The classics are considerd to be more important than those called books. The first, "Shao-king", a moral and religious treatise, narrates the great events of past history to affirm that Heaven favours those rulers who are kind towards their subjects. The second is called "She-king" or the "Odes". It has 305 short lyric poems, some dating back to the Shang dynasty (1766-1123 BCE) and the rest composed around 600 BCE. The third "Y-king" tells how to read messages in the patterns formed by randomly thrown stalks of a native plant, and how to match them with one or the other of sixty-four hexagrams made up of three broken and three unbroken lines. Those short explanations without any logic or reason are stated to have been written during the Chow dynasty (1122 BCE). It seems Confucius added eight explanatory chapters to the text and two more were included later. "Li-ki", the fourth tract in the series, is a compendium of a large number of documents, most of which date from the earlier part of the Chow dynasty. Providing rules of conduct in minute details for religious acts of worship, court functions, social and family relations alongwith a dress code, it is even at present the definitive manual of manners for a cultured Chinese. Besides the sayings of Confucius, it contains two long treatises composed by his students. One of these, known as the Doctrine of Mean describes the virtuous man or "Chung-yung". The other treatise is called "Ta-hio" or "Ta Hsueh" (Great Learning), and is a description of a ruler of virtue. The fifth is a short composition, Spring and Autumn, written by Confucius himself. There is also a sixth on filial piety but the opinion is divided on its authorship. The Chinese believe it to be composed by Confucius while critical scholars say it is written by his student, Tsang-tze.
Now, further confusion: The treatises "Doctrine of the Mean" and "Great Learning" were taken out of "LI-ki" above, added to the master's other works and constituted what is known as the "Sze-shuh" (Four Books). Anyway, of these four books, the first is the "Lun-yu" (Analects)-a work of twenty short chapters. It records the daily life of Confucius and his axiomatic sayings on historical and moral issues. It was written after his death by one of his disciples, apparently a grandson. The second "Shuh" is the "Book of Mencius", composed about a century later. A great exponent of Confucian traditions, his writings based on the master's views on morals and related matters were highly praised by his followers, who published it in his name. "Great Learning" and the "Doctrine of the Mean" are the third and fourth "Shuh" respectively.
Background of Confucian Canons
The tradition of ancient China, which Confucius followed respectfully was somewhat monotheistic. Spiritual forms believed to be associated with nature - mountains and rivers, land and grain, the four quarters of the heavens, the sun, moon, and stars - were all under the Heaven or T'ien also known as Ti (Lord), or Shang-ti (Supreme Lord). Everything was following his command; moral laws emerged from him; and people were under his benign gaze. He is all-seeing and punishes evil-doers by calamities, misfortunes and death. This is stressed in many passages of the Confucian texts to motivate people to do the right. As, for example, in the saying, "he who offends against Heaven has no one to whom he can pray." A further reason for good conduct was the belief that the souls of departed relatives were largely dependent for their happiness on the conduct of their living descendants. At the same time, he maintained that a virtuous life should be lived for the peace it brings upon all. Confucius was of the view that all people were born with goodness in their hearts, and some of them lose this pristine quality due to evil influences. It is within their power to control urges resulting from such influences and to engage in good activities.
Goodness, according to Confucius, comes from within, and all efforts are to be made to maintain this inherent goodness. Like Socrates, he also says that ignorance is at the root of all evil and needs to be removed by knowledge. This knowledge or learning is available in ancient texts and codes of conduct and propriety recommended therein. The lives of great and famous people in the past are to be held up as examples to follow. Confucius said that criticisms from high-thinking friends along with introspection and self-discipline would facilitate the development of a virtuous character. He advised young people not to indulge in a life of comfort. He believed that music brought out the good in a person and often sang with his pupils with the accompaniment of flutes and harps.
Virtues Required
To lead a life of complete goodness, according to Confucius, it is necessary to be benevolent and sincere and to be mindful of filial obligations and proper conduct. By sincerity, he meant that one should be truthful and straightforward in speech, faithful to one's promises and conscientious in the discharge of one's duties to others. A person has to conduct himself in this way not for any gain but for the love of virtue. Such a person follows the proper rules of conduct in his heart as also in outward actions, when alone as also in the presence of others. Benevolence is considered to be a kindly regard for the welfare of others and a readiness to help them in times of need. This is illustrated in the statement, "Benevolence is man" by Mencius, regarded as a great exponent of Confucian traditions. On being asked for a guiding principle for all conduct, Confucius said: "Is not mutual goodwill such a principle? What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others". (Analects XV, 13) As opposed to Lao-tze's dictum that injury should be repaid with kindness, the Confucian principle is:"Requite injury with justice, and kindness with kindness" (Analects, XIV, 36). Viewing the issue from the practical and legal standpoint of social order, he says elsewhere, "To repay kindness with kindness acts as an encouragement to the people. To requite injury with injury acts as a warning" (Li-ki, XXIX, 11). As regards filial obligations, he observed: "Filial piety is the root of all virtue...of all the actions of man there are none greater than those of filial piety." Propriety in Confucian teachings includes the entire range of human conduct and means doing the right thing in the right place. It is illustrated in the rules of ceremony, which are not confined to religious rites and rules of moral conduct but contain a bewildering mass of conventional customs and usages by which Chinese etiquette is regulated. At the time of Confucius, those three hundred greater and three thousand lesser rules of ceremony were considered sacrosanct, and people used to learn them as a guide to right conduct. If the rules were ignored or not followed properly, it was considered to be an act of sacrilege.
Ceremonies
There are six main ceremonies listed in the "Li-ki" -- capping, marriage, mourning rites, sacrifices, feasts and interviews. Till recently, they have persisted with not much change. Capping is a joyful function when the son is felicitated on being twenty years in age. Relatives and guests gather to witness the son getting a square cornered cap and a special name from the father marking his coming of age, and then join in a feast. The main purpose of marriage is to get a male child so as to continue the patriarchal family and to ensure that the ancestors are duly remembered. The "Li-ki" rules that a young man should marry at the age of thirty and a young woman at twenty. Matchmaking, proposal and acceptance are the responsibilities of parents and elders, the would be couple has nothing to do there. The bride and groom should not bear the same surnameand should not be related. In his wedding dress, the groom goes to the bride's house and brings her to his home in a carriage. There they drink wine from hollowed out halves of a melon, and she is considered to have become his wife. Monogamy is the norm but if she fails to bear a son a concubine is allowed for the purpose. There are seven reasons for which she can be divorced, infidelity and inability to bear a son are two such causes.
The mourning rites are elaborate and long-drawn, and are described in minute details in the "Li-ki". When a father dies, his son wears a sackcloth of coarse white hemp, fasts and thrashes about wailing for three days. After the burial, he continues wearing that, takes little food to become thin, and resides in a make-shift hut near the grave for 27 months. When a student suggested that the grieving be reduced to one year, Confucius (as stated in the Analects) got very annoyed revealing the extent to which he was attached to observance of filial piety. The ceremonies of sacrifice (to departed ancestors and venerated dead) are equally important and are food-offerings expressing respectful homage of worshippers to the dead, who are invited, are supposed to be present and are thought to enjoy the entertainment. Food and drinks are served in plenty, and the guests are entertained with music and pantomime. As there are no priests in Confucian tradition, the ceremonies are conducted by the heads of families (feudal chiefs and even the king for public functions). There is no formal worship as such, only feasting. The public functions were meant to honour scholars, sages and such other benefactors. Confucius after death came to be regarded as the greatest of public benefactors, and there were shrines where wooden tablets containing his teachings were kept in veneration. For instance, there is a Confucius shrine in Wuwei in People's Republic of China, one of the many in the country. Incidentally, the Chinese government have started opening Confucius Institutes in the capital cities of various countries of the world. During the time of Confucius (and until recently) there used to be a chamber or closet shrine in every house where wooden tablets bearing the names of deceased parents and ancestors were kept and worshipped.
Political Views
There was only one form of government in China at the time of Confucius, traditional monarchy -an extension of the patriarchal family system nationwide. As a father exercised total control over his children, so did the king over his subjects. He was given this absolute authority by heaven, and was called the son of heaven. It was heaven's decree that he enacted good laws and lived a life of virtue so as to set an example before his subjects. The virtuous king earned heaven's favour and enjoyed prosperity while the wicked one suffered perdition. Confucian texts repeatedly stress that subjects under a good king are contented and happy and that the unworthy ruler not only brings misery upon himself but also makes his people miserable. He said, "The Ruler himself should be virtuous, just, honest and dutiful. A virtuous ruler is like the Pole-star which, by keeping its place, makes all other stars to evolve round it. As is the Ruler, so will be the subjects", and added, : "There was Tao (a way or road of righteousness) only when fathers were fathers, when sons were sons, Rulers were Rulers and ministers were ministers."
Confucianism (in Chinese ru-jia) is the ethics and philosophy originally based on the teachings of the ancient Chinese sage and philosopher Confucius. It is a complex system of moral, social, political, and seemingly religious beliefs primarily relying on secular ethics. Confucianism aims to develop civilized individuals who in turn are expected to usher in a civilized society and eventually peace in world. It has enormously influenced cuture and history of East Asian countries leading to the erroneous belief that it is a state-sponsored religion, though propagation of Confucian values by governments is not altogether absent. Countries with a strong tradition of Confucianism include China, Japan, Taiwan, Vietnam, Korea, Singapore and places with settlements of Han Chinese. The kernel of his teachings is that someone who is fundamentally good is generally inclined towards goodness. So, that should be the ideal for every man, to be attained by leading a virtuous life, by possessing a very noble character, and by doing what he is meant to do unselfishly with sincerity and truthfulness. Sages and saints reach the peak of goodness through these sure-fire methods, says Confucius. According to him, a princely type of man is recognised by his high regard for virtue and shining character; the mean one by his grasping nature. The first has dignity, breadth and humility; the second pride, arrogance and crookedness. In a step by step process he termed as Great Learning, Confucius set forth the order by which self-development is made, and how it flows over to serve the state and benefit mankind. These are:
Investigation of phenomena;
Learning;
Sincerity;
Rectitude of purpose;
Self-development;
Family-discipline;
Local self-government; and
Universal self-government.
According to Confucius, the king is virtuous, just, honest and dutiful in a good government. Like the North Star, which by remaining steady in its place gives the other stars a point of reference, so should be the king to guide his subjects. The society, he says, is composed of five kinds of relationships: between man and wife, parent and child or elder and youngster, king/ruler and subject, and friend and friend. A well-governed state is that in which all the people carry on their relationships properly.
SCRIPTURES
Confucian thoughts are mainly available in four scriptures alongwith some more:
:
1) The Confucian Analects in twenty sections are the source books. Written by his students or people closely associated with Confucius, this series contain anecdotes, sayings, teachings and conversations of the sage with his followers.
2) The Philosophy of Mencius - Some confusion is there regarding this work (or two works, according to some). Lun Yu and Meng Tzu are stated to have written here the questions posed by the students and the answers thereto. There are also sections on economics, political theory and psychology. Yet another part contains suggestions to feudal rulers. The other opinion is that first measures to introduce a Confucian thought were taken by two famous early stalwarts, Mencius and Xun Zi during the philosophically fertile period of the Hundred Schools of Thought, who turned Confucianism into an ethical and political doctrine. They had to fight contemporary opposing ideas and to convince the then emperors by reasoned arguments.Mencius elaborated on Confucian ideas of human nature, of the requirements of good government, of morality, and created an idealist doctrine based on the supposition that human nature is essentially good. Xun Zi was against most of the points of view of Mencius. His assumption was that humans were by inclination bad, and required to be educated by observing various rites in order to bring out the goodness in them. Xun Zi's followers went still further and suggested very harsh punishments to keep the deviant tendencies in humans under control, a system known as li (borrowing from a Confucian principle) and the school of thought proposing it as legalist. This development helped Ouin Shi Huang of the decade or so old Quin dynasty (~ 220 BCE) to unify China by holding people under terror, all the time looking over their shoulders. Ironically, unification of the country and peaceful conditions envisaged by Confucius were achieved by following measures diametrically opposite to what he recommended.
3) Ta Hsueh, also known as Grat Learning, is a compendium of ethics and politics.
4) Chung Yung or The Doctrine of the Mean was written by Kung Chi, a grandson of Confucius. It is a work of philosophy delineating the nature and principles of balanced behaviour and appropriate conduct.
DIFFICULTIES
It seems not much evidence is there to link Confucius (the person) to Confucianism. During his lifeime, his ideas did not gain any currency, and he often regretted the fact that all the feudal lords found him unemployable. Like his contemporaries (or nearly so) Socrates, Jesus and Buddha, there is no direct way of knowing what the ideas were. In its place there are reminiscences of his students, their students and people close to the master. As such, what passes off as his teachings is not always reliable. Compounding the situation further, there was a widespread repression of dissidents and their thoughts during the reign of the Quins (~220 BCE) known as the period of "Burning of the Books and Burying of the Scholars", about 200 years after the death of Confucius. His writings perhaps would have been lost forever, had there not been a chance discovery of a cache of his works hidden in the walls of a scholar's house. Based on these and other fragmentary sources, his ideas could be framed revealing a widely-read person intimately aware of the problems of his times. He called on almost all the kings of China feuding for supremacy, and tried to bring about a change in their ways with his political and philosophical ideas. The Zhou dynasty kind of disintegrating when Confucius was young (~530 BCE) persuaded him strongly of the importance of his mission to unify China. (This date is open to question because some scholars place it in third century BCE.) Anyway, holding up the famous late Duke of Zhou as a role model, he stated in section 6 of the XVIIIth Analects that, - "If right principles prevailed through the empire, there would be no need for me to change its state". He wanted to acquire sufficient political power so as to establish a new dynasty on the lines of the late Zhous, to "make a Zhou dynasty in the East" (Analects XV, 5), and for the purpose even went to the extent of accepting an invitation from a rebel. He remained the axiomatic "king without a crown", could not even become a prime minister somewhere, and in fact was expelled from a number of states for a number of times. Along with his supporters and students, he travelled around (when he was jeered at and even thrown into jail) and returned to his native place during the later part of his life to teach.
His short replies to questions asked by students form the Analects and are considered to be the primary source of Confucian teachings. A somewhat disjointed collection of anecdotes, conversations and questions and answers, the Analects lack coherence. There is no deductive reasoning, inductive logic or evidence in the texts as is found in, say, western philosophical works. In its place, Confucius heavily relied on rhetorical forms like analogy, generally true statements or aphorisms and tautological observations or self-evident truths, putting them in highly contextualised terms. As a result, what he says often appears fuzzy and difficult to understand. Another major discrepancy is that different sources place the texts in varying chronological order, spell them not always uniformly and compound the matter further by differng interpretations. Nevertheless, Confucius says that there is in his teachings "a unity all pervading" (Analects XV, 3) and "one single thread binding my way together." (Analects IV, 15).
After suppression during the short-lived Quin dynasty (~ 220 BCE) Confucianism revived in the following Han dynasty. The neo-Confucianism developed during this period (~2nd century BCE) combined Taoist and Buddhist thoughts and created a new philosophical system,.which became a kind of state religion. In this instance there are some controversies as well, because Taoism and Buddhism beliefs were totally opposed to some traditions of Confucianism. (For example, reincarnation in Buddhist thought.) Apparently, emperor Wu of the Han dynasty made Confucian texts the basis of the examination system for entry into government service as mandarins or an official of the nine top grades of the Chinese imperial service. Confucianism as a state philosophy continued thereafter in China upto early twentieth century of current era. It was also regarded as state philosophy in Japan and Korea.
Life of Confucius
Summarising his life, Confucius said (The Analects II, 4):
At 15 I set my heart on learning; at 30 I firmly took my stand; at 40 I had no delusions; at 50 I knew the Mandate of Heaven; at 60 my ear was attuned; at 70 I followed my heart's desire without overstepping the boundaries of right.
K'ung-tze or K'ung-fu-tze was his actual name in Chinese, which visiting Jesuit priests in the Chinese court in the 17th century latinized to Confucius. Actually, part of the credit of bringing Confucianism to the stream of global philosophical thought belongs to such Catholic missionaries. Also, there is the seven volume monumental work of Professor Legge under the title The Chinese Classics. From legends and fragmentary evidences, it would appear that Confucius was born in a noble but not too well-off family ca 551 BCE in the province of Lu (modern Shan-tung). His father was a distinguished warrior who died while Confucius was quite young. To support himself and his mother, Confucius worked as a hired help in a noble household but continued to maintain his habit of extensive reading. At the age of 22 he opened a school to teach the traditional six disciplines (history, poetry, government, ethics, divination and music) which was attended by many students. His fame as a scholar grew more, culminating in his appointment as a minister in the state of Lu. The measures taken and policies adopted by him were very effective improving conditions all round. Then the court intrigues started, the duke of Lu began to ignore his advice and a disgusted Confucius left government service. This account is disputed by some other scholars who maintain that the state job Confucius ever got was that of a junior teacher after the death of his mother, when he got married, fathered a child and then divorced his wife. He was never a minster because all the rulers were of the view that his awkward truthfulness and embarrassing honesty would be no good in a position of responsibility.
Be that as it may, all the sources agree that he settled into a life of teaching after his travels and died in his 74th year in 478 BCE (which was two years after the death of Buddha). He did not lose heart for his failure to reform society, and died with courage saying, "There is not one in the empire that will make me his master!" Respected during his lifetime as also the period following, he was eclipsed for a while by the Quin kings. From the Han period (2nd century BCE) onwards, he was revered for his knowledge and wisdom, and there were shrines and idols of him in his memory. (The idols were replaced by woodblocks in which his messages were engraved in the 15 th century of the current era.) Though he was regarded as a sage without flaws, he never took his scholarship seriously. In "Analects", VII, 18, he is described as one "who in the eager pursuit of knowledge, forgot his food, and in the joy of attaining to it forgot his sorrow". He maintained a sombre yet cheerful mien, was fond of reciting poetry and loved to play the lute and sing. He was quite humourous as would be apparent from his comment on noisy music: "Why use an ox-knife to kill a fowl?" Confucius believed in an omniscient heaven and was of the view that the punishments and rewards of life were consequences of present actions.
The essence of Confucianism is social propriety or Li, which according to the master is the greatest principle of living. If a society lives following the tenets of Li, it is devoid of unrest and strife. Confucius believed that such conditions were possible only in idealized feudal structures. In such states everyone ideally carries out the duties expected of them; Father shows kindness to son, who reciprocates with filial piety. The eldest sibling shows understanding and love to juniors so as to get respect and humility in return. A measure of righteousness is the key element in the relationship between husband and wife while obedience is all that is required of her. Elders require to be humane so as to earn the respect of younger people; the rulers benevolent to get the loyalty of ministers and subjects. Li is also stated to mean the middle way, the idea of maintaining a sense of proportion in all matters.That his principles did not always produce the desired effect is apparent from the broken marriage of Confucius. Probably, his measure of righteousness appeared to be too onerous to his wife forcing her subsequently to opt for a divorce.
Confucius said that if someone wishes to control or govern others, he has to control himself first. This can be regarded as paraphrasing of the biblical injunction, do unto others what you do unto yourself (Confucius, of course, had no way of knowing it.). It is also his contention that the beneficial influence of a virtuous king spreads throughout the kingdom making everyone happy. He elaborated on this idea in the book Great Learning and combined it with the Taoist concept wu wei, meaning that the less the king does (is seen), the more that is done (he is effective). Remaining calm, cool and collected at the centre, the king helps everything to function properly, avoiding interference in matters small. The concept is similar to the earlier Chinese shamanistic belief wang-sa in which king is the axis with earth and sky at the two ends and people in the middle. Another interpretation is that it is a ploy of ministers and counselors to curb autocratic tendencies of the king harming the people. In Chinese calligraphy the character depicts a line uniting these three levels of the universe. Confucias never said that he was telling something new; he maintained that he was only repeating what was said before long ago. In reality, however, he introduced many new ideas. For instance, Voltaire and H. G. Creel greatly admired his (at that time) revolutionary idea of replacing the nobility of blood with one of virtue. Before Confucius framed his ideas, Juniz used to mean "noble man"; after his writings came to be known, it gradually assumed a new connotation just as "gentleman" did in English over a period of time. A virtuous commoner nurturing his qualities thus could be called a "gentleman" but a no-good son of a king remains a "small man" for all purposes. Accepting students from all sections of society, Confucian showed that he was no supporter of the feudal structures in Chinese society.
Another new idea of Confucius is meritocracy, the emphasis on merit as a criterion, which led
to the introduction of the Imperial examination system in China. It made possible for everyone to become a high government official after qualifying in an examination, thus bringing wealth and honour to his .family. The modern civil service is China's very important practical contrbution to the world. It would appear that the Chinese examination system was started in ca 165 BCE, when certain candidates for public office were called to the Chinese capital for examination of their moral excellence by the emperor. This process was made a custom over time, and any one wishing to enter government service had to pass a written examination. There was a great demand for officials capable of reading and writng administrative documents during the early Han period. Principles of the ru jia school established by Confucius about 300 years before that time were of great help leading to a revival of interest in his teachings, more so to counter the divisive tendencies of the land-owning aristocrats. Furthermore, his adoration of past kings who left their kingdoms to those apparently most qualified rather than to their elder sons emphasised the advantages of a merit-based selection method. The emperors found it convenient to rule China with Confucian principles along with some elements of Buddhism and Taoism. Like other savants, Confucius would probably have objected to much that was passed off as his teachings in subsequent periods. An example of this was the excessive importance given to rituals by his later-day followers.
Ritualism
In Analects II, 3, Confucius said:
Lead the people with administrative injunctions and put them in their place with penal law, and they will avoid punishments but will be without a sense of shame. Lead them with excellence and put them in their place through roles and ritual practices, and in addition to developing a sense of shame, they will order themselves harmoniously.
It would be seen from the above the unique features of Chinese social value systems. The emphasis there is that one should not be ashamed of his conduct and should always avoid the loss of face shameful behaviour brings in its wake. During the period of the Warring States, there was a sort of anarchy, which the Quin kings suppressed by enacting harsh laws. Li meaning social propriety came to be known as legalism while the ritualism of Confucius was called fa. His proposition was that under threat of punishments people keep to the straight and the narrow little realising why was it necessary for them to do so. Introducing ethics there, Confucius argued that with ritual, patterns of behaviour are internalised and exert their influence before actions are taken, so people behave properly because they fear shame and want to avoid losing face. The idea behind the rituals or the so-called "Rite" is somewhat difficult to comprehend. In the Chinese pictographic script, the character representing it is a vase full of flowers on an alter symbolizing a sacrifice to the gods. The Confucian interpretation of it includes politeness and propriety along with understanding. Thus rituals are used to distinguish between people, while their usage allow people to know at all times who is the younger and who the elder, who is the guest and who the host and so forth. Rituals also define the duties of people and the outcome of doing the tasks properly. Assimilation of the sense of ritual is the main process. Thus formal behaviour becomes a sort of second nature, desires are channelled properly and cultivation of personal qualties takes the form of social correctness. Though this idea is against the common saying that "the cowl does not make the monk", Confucianism maintains that with sincerity it is possible to make good behaviour an ingrained part of an individual's character. So, Confucius says:
"Respectfulness, without the Rites, becomes laborious bustle; carefulness, without the Rites, becomes timidity; boldness, without the Rites, becomes insubordination; straightforwardness, without the Rites, becomes rudeness" (Analects VIII, 2).
Ritual is therefore a way to find the balance between opposing qualities that might otherwise lead to conflict. It helps in categorising people and builds hierarchical relationships through protocols and ceremonies. In this manner, everyone is assigned a place in society and an appropriate form of behaviour.
Confucius was very much attached to music and regarded it as an exception to rituals for its quality of unifying the hearts, transcending all boundaries. Confucius, however, not always followed the rite (as repeatedly stated in the Analects). It seems he behaved differently often, like when he cried at his preferred disciple's death, or when he met a fiendish princess (VI, 28).
Subsequently, however, dogmatic ritualists forgetting that ritual is "more than presents of jade and silk" (XVII, 12) departed from what Confucius intended.
Ritual earlier meant "sacrifice" in a religious ceremony. Confucius extended the term to include secular ceremonial behaviour alongwith propriety or politeness which is a part of everyday life. Rituals were considered as an all-embracing system of norms and were codified by Confucius so as to revive the etiquette of earlier dynasties Upon his death, however, he himself came to be regarded as a great authority on ritualistic behaviour. One of the central themes of Confucianism is relationships, and the differing duties arising from the different status one held in relation to others. Thus individuals stand at the same time in different degrees of relationships with different people. For example, they are juniors in relation to their parents and elders, and seniors in relation to their children, younger siblings, students, and others. The juniors are required in Confucianism to be reverent towards to their seniors and to serve them, while seniors are expected to be benevolent towards juniors and to be concerned about their welfare. This is found in many aspects of East Asian culture even to this day, with children carrying out their filial obligations towards parents and elders, and parents and elders equally mindful of their responsibilities towards their juniors.
Scriptural Notes
Confucianism as it is understood now includes not only the teachings of Confucius, but also customs and rituals adopted and authorised by him and some additions thereafter. In fact, among the Confucian texts there are several that even in his day were considered as sacred vestiges of the past. There are two classes of texts named as "King" (Classics), and "Shuh" (Books). The classics are considerd to be more important than those called books. The first, "Shao-king", a moral and religious treatise, narrates the great events of past history to affirm that Heaven favours those rulers who are kind towards their subjects. The second is called "She-king" or the "Odes". It has 305 short lyric poems, some dating back to the Shang dynasty (1766-1123 BCE) and the rest composed around 600 BCE. The third "Y-king" tells how to read messages in the patterns formed by randomly thrown stalks of a native plant, and how to match them with one or the other of sixty-four hexagrams made up of three broken and three unbroken lines. Those short explanations without any logic or reason are stated to have been written during the Chow dynasty (1122 BCE). It seems Confucius added eight explanatory chapters to the text and two more were included later. "Li-ki", the fourth tract in the series, is a compendium of a large number of documents, most of which date from the earlier part of the Chow dynasty. Providing rules of conduct in minute details for religious acts of worship, court functions, social and family relations alongwith a dress code, it is even at present the definitive manual of manners for a cultured Chinese. Besides the sayings of Confucius, it contains two long treatises composed by his students. One of these, known as the Doctrine of Mean describes the virtuous man or "Chung-yung". The other treatise is called "Ta-hio" or "Ta Hsueh" (Great Learning), and is a description of a ruler of virtue. The fifth is a short composition, Spring and Autumn, written by Confucius himself. There is also a sixth on filial piety but the opinion is divided on its authorship. The Chinese believe it to be composed by Confucius while critical scholars say it is written by his student, Tsang-tze.
Now, further confusion: The treatises "Doctrine of the Mean" and "Great Learning" were taken out of "LI-ki" above, added to the master's other works and constituted what is known as the "Sze-shuh" (Four Books). Anyway, of these four books, the first is the "Lun-yu" (Analects)-a work of twenty short chapters. It records the daily life of Confucius and his axiomatic sayings on historical and moral issues. It was written after his death by one of his disciples, apparently a grandson. The second "Shuh" is the "Book of Mencius", composed about a century later. A great exponent of Confucian traditions, his writings based on the master's views on morals and related matters were highly praised by his followers, who published it in his name. "Great Learning" and the "Doctrine of the Mean" are the third and fourth "Shuh" respectively.
Background of Confucian Canons
The tradition of ancient China, which Confucius followed respectfully was somewhat monotheistic. Spiritual forms believed to be associated with nature - mountains and rivers, land and grain, the four quarters of the heavens, the sun, moon, and stars - were all under the Heaven or T'ien also known as Ti (Lord), or Shang-ti (Supreme Lord). Everything was following his command; moral laws emerged from him; and people were under his benign gaze. He is all-seeing and punishes evil-doers by calamities, misfortunes and death. This is stressed in many passages of the Confucian texts to motivate people to do the right. As, for example, in the saying, "he who offends against Heaven has no one to whom he can pray." A further reason for good conduct was the belief that the souls of departed relatives were largely dependent for their happiness on the conduct of their living descendants. At the same time, he maintained that a virtuous life should be lived for the peace it brings upon all. Confucius was of the view that all people were born with goodness in their hearts, and some of them lose this pristine quality due to evil influences. It is within their power to control urges resulting from such influences and to engage in good activities.
Goodness, according to Confucius, comes from within, and all efforts are to be made to maintain this inherent goodness. Like Socrates, he also says that ignorance is at the root of all evil and needs to be removed by knowledge. This knowledge or learning is available in ancient texts and codes of conduct and propriety recommended therein. The lives of great and famous people in the past are to be held up as examples to follow. Confucius said that criticisms from high-thinking friends along with introspection and self-discipline would facilitate the development of a virtuous character. He advised young people not to indulge in a life of comfort. He believed that music brought out the good in a person and often sang with his pupils with the accompaniment of flutes and harps.
Virtues Required
To lead a life of complete goodness, according to Confucius, it is necessary to be benevolent and sincere and to be mindful of filial obligations and proper conduct. By sincerity, he meant that one should be truthful and straightforward in speech, faithful to one's promises and conscientious in the discharge of one's duties to others. A person has to conduct himself in this way not for any gain but for the love of virtue. Such a person follows the proper rules of conduct in his heart as also in outward actions, when alone as also in the presence of others. Benevolence is considered to be a kindly regard for the welfare of others and a readiness to help them in times of need. This is illustrated in the statement, "Benevolence is man" by Mencius, regarded as a great exponent of Confucian traditions. On being asked for a guiding principle for all conduct, Confucius said: "Is not mutual goodwill such a principle? What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others". (Analects XV, 13) As opposed to Lao-tze's dictum that injury should be repaid with kindness, the Confucian principle is:"Requite injury with justice, and kindness with kindness" (Analects, XIV, 36). Viewing the issue from the practical and legal standpoint of social order, he says elsewhere, "To repay kindness with kindness acts as an encouragement to the people. To requite injury with injury acts as a warning" (Li-ki, XXIX, 11). As regards filial obligations, he observed: "Filial piety is the root of all virtue...of all the actions of man there are none greater than those of filial piety." Propriety in Confucian teachings includes the entire range of human conduct and means doing the right thing in the right place. It is illustrated in the rules of ceremony, which are not confined to religious rites and rules of moral conduct but contain a bewildering mass of conventional customs and usages by which Chinese etiquette is regulated. At the time of Confucius, those three hundred greater and three thousand lesser rules of ceremony were considered sacrosanct, and people used to learn them as a guide to right conduct. If the rules were ignored or not followed properly, it was considered to be an act of sacrilege.
Ceremonies
There are six main ceremonies listed in the "Li-ki" -- capping, marriage, mourning rites, sacrifices, feasts and interviews. Till recently, they have persisted with not much change. Capping is a joyful function when the son is felicitated on being twenty years in age. Relatives and guests gather to witness the son getting a square cornered cap and a special name from the father marking his coming of age, and then join in a feast. The main purpose of marriage is to get a male child so as to continue the patriarchal family and to ensure that the ancestors are duly remembered. The "Li-ki" rules that a young man should marry at the age of thirty and a young woman at twenty. Matchmaking, proposal and acceptance are the responsibilities of parents and elders, the would be couple has nothing to do there. The bride and groom should not bear the same surnameand should not be related. In his wedding dress, the groom goes to the bride's house and brings her to his home in a carriage. There they drink wine from hollowed out halves of a melon, and she is considered to have become his wife. Monogamy is the norm but if she fails to bear a son a concubine is allowed for the purpose. There are seven reasons for which she can be divorced, infidelity and inability to bear a son are two such causes.
The mourning rites are elaborate and long-drawn, and are described in minute details in the "Li-ki". When a father dies, his son wears a sackcloth of coarse white hemp, fasts and thrashes about wailing for three days. After the burial, he continues wearing that, takes little food to become thin, and resides in a make-shift hut near the grave for 27 months. When a student suggested that the grieving be reduced to one year, Confucius (as stated in the Analects) got very annoyed revealing the extent to which he was attached to observance of filial piety. The ceremonies of sacrifice (to departed ancestors and venerated dead) are equally important and are food-offerings expressing respectful homage of worshippers to the dead, who are invited, are supposed to be present and are thought to enjoy the entertainment. Food and drinks are served in plenty, and the guests are entertained with music and pantomime. As there are no priests in Confucian tradition, the ceremonies are conducted by the heads of families (feudal chiefs and even the king for public functions). There is no formal worship as such, only feasting. The public functions were meant to honour scholars, sages and such other benefactors. Confucius after death came to be regarded as the greatest of public benefactors, and there were shrines where wooden tablets containing his teachings were kept in veneration. For instance, there is a Confucius shrine in Wuwei in People's Republic of China, one of the many in the country. Incidentally, the Chinese government have started opening Confucius Institutes in the capital cities of various countries of the world. During the time of Confucius (and until recently) there used to be a chamber or closet shrine in every house where wooden tablets bearing the names of deceased parents and ancestors were kept and worshipped.
Political Views
There was only one form of government in China at the time of Confucius, traditional monarchy -an extension of the patriarchal family system nationwide. As a father exercised total control over his children, so did the king over his subjects. He was given this absolute authority by heaven, and was called the son of heaven. It was heaven's decree that he enacted good laws and lived a life of virtue so as to set an example before his subjects. The virtuous king earned heaven's favour and enjoyed prosperity while the wicked one suffered perdition. Confucian texts repeatedly stress that subjects under a good king are contented and happy and that the unworthy ruler not only brings misery upon himself but also makes his people miserable. He said, "The Ruler himself should be virtuous, just, honest and dutiful. A virtuous ruler is like the Pole-star which, by keeping its place, makes all other stars to evolve round it. As is the Ruler, so will be the subjects", and added, : "There was Tao (a way or road of righteousness) only when fathers were fathers, when sons were sons, Rulers were Rulers and ministers were ministers."
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